Passage 1

During the past few years, the popularization of the Internet, by lowering the cost of global communication to moderate levels, is leading to a near-perfect market for information. It has bred enterprises that grow and change with astonishing speed, creating millionaires and invigorating(振兴) the economy. The Net has brought to even poor libraries a wealth of resources at very low cost. It has enabled individuals to speak in forums small and large, with an ease and fluency that would delight the founders of this nation, if they could see email the World Wide Web, Usenet, and online chat.

The tremendous good done by the popularization of the Internet has caused some problems, of course. Chief among these are a weakening of privacy, greater exposure for matters that most people would prefer were absent from society, such as hate speech and child pornography, and an increased risk of one's children (or oneself )being confronted by an image or text that better might have been left unseen. The Internet has brought the entire world into the living room, but some people are finding that there are certain parts of the world they would prefer not to have anywhere in their home. An example that has become an everyday displeasure for many is junk email, also called "spam". On a bad day, up to 30%k of the email processed by major Internet service providers is spam, much of it promoting sex sites and get-rich-quick schemes. Many people have haul to abandon their email accounts, as they become filled with trash. Left unchecked, spam could spoil the great public good of the Internet.

Passage 2

Friends play an important part in our lives, and although we may take the friendship for granted, we often don't clearly understand how we make friends. While we get on well with a number of people, we are usually friends with only a very few—for example, the average among students is about six per person. In all the cases of friendly relationships, two people like one another and enjoy being together, but beyond that, the degree of intimacy(亲密)between them and the reasons for their shared interest vary enormously. As we pet to know people we take into account things like age, race, economic condition, social position, and intelligence. Although these factors are not of prime importance, it is more difficult to get on with people when there is a marked difference in age and background.

Some friendly relationships can be kept on argument and discussion, but it is usual for close friends to have similar ideas and beliefs and to have attitudes and interests in common. They often talk about "being on the same wavelength". It generally takes time to reach this point. And the more intimately involved people become, the more they rely on one another. People want to do friends favors and hate to break a promise. Equally, friends have to learn to put up with annoying habits and to tolerate differences of opinion.

In contrast with marriage, there are no friendship ceremonies to strengthen the association between two people. But the supporting and understanding of each other that results from shared experiences and emotions does seem to create a powerful relationship, which can overcome differences in background, and break down barrier of age, class or race.

Passage 3

Once upon a time all you needed for a camping trip was a sleeping bag, a compass and some common sense. Now, according to my local sporting goods retailer, a lot more should be added. However, outdoor travel has become such a trend that urban people find themselves with some upscale retailers to address their every desire.

"Eco" and "adventure" are the latest fashionable words in destination travel; those in the industry know they can make serious cash off all the consumers. These are consumers who get outdoors not for nature's sake, but to work out simply for a splendid cocktail party.

As a result of high-end demand, the great outdoors is becoming less affordable and accessible for ordinary people. Our national parks used to be vast acres of wilderness where could go and enjoy nature, for free. But over the past 100 years, the government has been slowly selling or leasing off public lands for profit, and our current president is continuing the trend. Large ski resorts have swallowed up plenty of wilderness and small towns in the West by attracting more high-end business. Nature is now a commodity that can be repackaged and sold to the wealthy developers. As for the small amount of public land left, well, try to remember the last time you camped a state park for free.

The Joneses and everyone trying to keep up with them want a piece of the outdoors, but only with creature comforts included. The rest of us are being slowly priced out of nature. Pretty soon my tent and sleeping pack will be out of date; since camping will mean a luxury yurt with skylights for star-gazing. If this is what signifies experiencing nature in the new millennium, then Thoreau must be rolling in his grave.

Passage 4

President Coolidge's statement, "The business of America is business," still points to an important truth today--that business institutions have more prestige(威望) in American society than any other kind of organization, including the government. Why do business institutions possess this great prestige?

One reason is that Americans view business as being more firmly based on the ideal of competition than other institutions in society. Since competition is seen as the major source of progress and prosperity by most Americans, competitive business institutions are respected. Competition is not only good in itself, it is the means by which other basic American values such as individual freedom, equality of opportunity, and hard work is protected.

Competition protects the freedom of the individual by ensuring that there is no monopoly(垄断) of power. In contrast to one, all-powerful government, many businesses compete against each other for profits. Theoretically, if one business tries to take unfair advantage of its customers, it will lose to competing business which treats its customers more fairly. Where many businesses compete for the customers' dollar, they cannot afford to treat them like inferiors or slaves.

A contrast is often made between business, which is competitive, and government, which is a monopoly. Because business is competitive, many Americans believe that it is more supportive of freedom than government, even though government leaders are elected by the people and business leaders are not. Many Americans believe, then, that competition is as important, or even more important, than democracy in preserving freedom.

Competition in business is also believe to strengthen the ideal of quality of opportunity. Competition is seen as an open and fair rave where success goes to the swiftest person regardless of his or her social class background. Competitive success is commonly seen as the American alternative lo social rank based on family background.

Business is therefore viewed as an expression of the idea of equality of opportunity rather than the aristocratic(贵族的) idea of inherited privilege.

Passage 1

In ancient times the most important examinations were spoken, not written. In the schools of ancient Greece and Rome, testing usually consisted of reading poetry aloud or giving speeches.

In the European universities of the Middle Ages, students who were working for advanced degrees had to discuss questions in their field of study with people who had made special study of the subject. This custom exists today as part of the process of testing candidates for the doctorate(博士学位).

Generally, however, modern examinations are written. The written examination, where all students are tested on the same questions, was probably not known until the nineteenth century. Perhaps it came into existence with the great increase in population and the development of modern industry. A room full of candidates for a state examination, timed exactly by electric clocks and carefully watched over by managers, resembles a group of workers at an automobile factory. Generally, during examinations teachers and students are expected to act like machines.

One type of test is sometimes called an “objective”test. It is intended to deal with facts, not personal opinions. To make up an objective test, the teacher writes a series of questions, each of which has only one correct answer. Along with each question the teacher writes the correct answer and another three statements that look like correct answers to students who have not learned the material properly.

Passage 2

For years and years people have been saying that the railways are dead. “We can do without railways, "people say , as if motorcars and planes made the railways unnecessary. We all keep hearing that trains are slow, that they lose money, and that they're dying. But this is far from the truth. In these days of expensive oil, the railways have become highly competitive with motorcars and planes. If you want to carry people or goods from place to place, they're cheaper than planes.

And they have much in common with planes. A plane goes in a straight line and so does a railway, What is more, it takes you from the heart of a city into the heart of another. It doesn't leave you as a plane does, miles and miles away from the city center. It doesn't hold you up as a motorcar does, in endless traffic jams. And a single train can carry goods which no plane or motorcar could ever do.

Far from being dead, the railways are very much alive. Modem railway lines give you a smooth, untroubled journey. Where else can you eat well, sleep in comfort, feel safe and enjoy the scene while you are traveling at speed at the same time? And we are only at the beginning. We have just entered the age of super-fast trains, traveling at150 miles an hour and more. Soon we will be wondering why we spent so much on motorways we can't use because we don 't have enough money to buy the oil and planes we can't fly for the same reason.

Passage 3

When you look at yourself in the mirror, do you ever wonder why you look the way you do? Do you also wonder what biological processes are at work to shape your face, which is as individual and unique as a fingerprint?

The answer is in a little piece of your DNA called a gene enhancer(增强子), according to scientists at Berkeley Lab. These little pieces of DNA help switch on or boost the expression of specific genes that control the development of the face and head before birth. What 's interesting about these little influential bits of DNA is that a gene enhancer doesn't have to be found anywhere close to the genes and, in some cases, doesn't even have to be located on the same chromosome(染色体).

Of course, there are a number of hereditary(遗传的) factors which help determine appearance. For example, a child resembles a parent. The researchers, who outlined their findings in the journal Science, said the gene enhancer adjusts the genes to give your face its final unique look. Even with identical twins, there are subtle differences in appearance. Identical twins Linda and Terry Jamison look similar but are not exactly the same in appearance.

“Our results suggest that there are thousands of enhancers in the human genome(人体基因组) that are involved in facial development, ”said Axel Visel, a geneticist with Berkeley Lab's Genomics Division, who led the research. “We don 't know yet what all of these enhancers do, but we do know that they are out there and they are important for facial development.”

Scientists have previously been able to identify some of the genetic faults that can cause birth defects, such as a cleft lip(兔唇), but haven't been able to fully understand what genetic factors are responsible for subtle differences in appearance.

Passage 4

In the United States during 1992, any family of four with an annual cash income of less than $14,335 ( before taxes) was considered poor.The dollar amount was called the poverty line, an economic measuring rod devised(设计) in 1964.The line was set at three times the amount needed to provide the cheapest nutritionally balanced diet.The poverty line is adjusted annually for inflation.

While the poverty line in the United States was more than $14,000, the average annual per-person income in Bangladesh was $200, in Ethiopia $130, in Haiti $340, and in Mali $265. Anyone in those nations with an income of $14,000 would be considered wealthy. During the Great Depression in the United States, when half the population was considered poor, a family with an income at the 1992 poverty line could afford to buy a house, a car, clothing and food.

The reality of poverty varies with locations and social and political conditions.Poverty basically means a lack of or an insufficient quantity of the three primary physical needs food, clothing, and shelter.But for poverty to be recognized, it must exist alongside prosperity. Before the discovery of the New World, the American Indians had not considered themselves poor, though they lived with only the bare necessities and a few handmade artifacts(人工制品).

The severity of poverty varies, depending on the economic vitality of the nation in which it occurs. In the modem industrialized societies of Western Europe, North America and Japan, there are many government services provided to ease poverty--including free medical care and subsidized(补贴的) housing. The homeless of New York City and Los Angeles can usually find some shelter and a mission offering free meals.

Passage 1

In the United States elementary education begins at the age of six. At this stage nearly all the teachers are women, mostly married. The atmosphere is usually very friendly, and the teachers have now accepted the idea that the important thing is to make the children happy and interested. The old authoritarian(要绝对服从的) methods of education were discredited(不被认可的) rather a long time ago--so much so that many people now think that they have gone too far in the direction of trying to make children happy and interested rather than giving them actual instruction.

The social education of young children tries to make them accept the idea that human beings in a society need to work together for their common goal. So the emphasis is on cooperation rather than competition throughout most of this process. This may seem curious, in view of the fact that American society is highly competitive; however, the need for making people sociable in this sense has come lo be regarded as one of the functions of education. Most Americans do grow up with competitive ideas, and obviously quite a few as criminals, but it is not fair to say that the educational system fails. It probably does succeed in making most people sociable and ready to help one another both in material ways and through kindness and friendliness.

Passage 2

When something goes wrong, it can be very satisfying to say, "Well, it's so-and-so's fault." or "I know I'm late, but it's not my fault; the car broke down." It is probably not your fault, but once you form the habit of blaming somebody or something else for a bad situation, you are a loser. You have no power and could do nothing that helps change the situation. However, you can have great power over what happens to you if you stop focusing; on whom to blame and start focusing on how to remedy the situation. This is the winner's key to success.

Winners are great at overcoming problems. For example, if you were late because your car broke down, maybe you have your car examined. Or, you might start to carry along with you the useful phone numbers, so you could call for help when in need. For another example, if your colleague causes you problems on the job for lack of responsibility or ability, find ways of dealing with his irresponsibility or inability rather than simply blame the person. Ask to work with a different person, or don't rely on this person. You should accept that the person is not reliable and find creative ways to work successfully regardless of how your colleague fails to do his job well.

This is what bring a winner is all about—creatively using your skills and talents so that you are successful no matter what happens. Winners don't have fewer problems in their lives; they have just as many difficult situations to face as anybody else. They are just better at seeing those problems as challenges and opportunities to develop their own talents. So, stop focusing on "whose mistake it is." Once you are confident about your power over bad situations, problems are just the stops on the road to success.

Passage 3

Ask someone what they have done to help the environment recently and they, will almost certainly mention recycling. Recycling in the home is very important of course. However, being forced to recycle often means we already have more material than we need. We are dealing with the results of that over-consumption in the greenest way possible, but it would be far better if we did not need to bring so much material home in the first place.

The total amount of packaging increased by 12% between 2010 and 2017. It now makes up a third of a typical household's waste in the UK. In many supermarkets nowadays food items are packaged twice with plastic and cardboard.

Too much packaging is doing serious damage to the environment. The UK, for example, is running out of it for carrying this unnecessary waste. If such packaging is burnt, it gives off greenhouse gases which go on to cause the greenhouse effect. Recycling helps, but the process itself uses energy. The solution is not to produce such items in the first place. Food waste is a serious problem, too. Too many supermarkets encourage customers to buy more than they need. However, a few of them are coming round to the idea that this cannot continue, encouraging customers to reuse their plastic· bags, for example.

But this is not just about supermarkets. It is about all of us. We have learned lo associate packaging with quality. We have learned to think that something unpackaged is of poor quality. This is especially true of food. But it also applies to a wile range of consumer products, which often have far more packaging than necessary.

There are signs of hope. As more of us recycle, we are beginning to realize just how much unnecessary material we are collecting. We need to face the wastefulness of our consumer culture, but we have a mountain to climb.

Passage 4

The U.S. Travel Association confirmed in a survey what many frustrated fliers already know: The No.1 airport headache is passengers who pull loo many carry-on bags through security and onto flights.

That number has skyrocketed in recent years—86 million more bags were carried on in the year than during the same period two years earlier, the Transportation Security Administration estimates.

The reason for the carry-on jump is no mystery: All the major domestic airlines now charge to check (托运) even one bag, generally $25. To save money and time at the baggage claim, passengers carry as much as they can on board, with predictable consequences.

At security checkpoints, these millions of extra bags, many of them densely packed, mean longer lines. Once past security, the fun continues at boarding. On a typical flight, there's a fierce fight for scarce overhead bin space, extending the boarding process. Bags that arc stuffed under seals make passengers even more uncomfortable.

There has got to be a better way. In fact, there is. Here's what a more sensible system would look like:

No fee for the first piece of checked luggage. It would be better if airlines simply raised fares instead of fees. Limit the carry-on size and charge for large carry-ons. Use templates(模板) at the security checkpoints to cut off the monster bags that now often escape airline staff's notice until they're right at the door of the plane. Tax the airlines' income from lees the same way dial Ian's are taxed. Currently, the fees are lax free, encouraging airlines to generate income through fees rather than fare increases.

We're sympathetic Io the airline industry's need to make money, but the baggage fees—previously intended to offset rising fuel costs—have become an interruption that slows down the security check, offloads costs onto fliers and makes the boarding process even more unpleasant than it already is.

Passage 1

Some psychologists maintain that mental acts such as thinking are not performed in the brain alone, but that one's muscles also participate. It may be said that we think with our muscles in somewhat the same way as we listen to music with our bodies.

You surely are not surprised to be told that you usually listen to music not only with your ears but with your whole body. Few people can listen to music that is more or less familiar without moving their body or, more specifically, some part of their body. Often when one listens to a symphonic concert on the radio, he is attracted to direct the orchestra(管弦乐队) even though he knows there is a good conductor doing the job.

Strange as this behavior may be, there is a very good reason for it. One cannot derive all possible enjoyment from music unless he participates in its performance. The listener “feels”himself into the music with more or less noticeable motions of his body.

The muscles of the body actually participate in the mental process of thinking in the same way, but this participation is less obvious because it is less noticeable.

Passage 2

Washington Irving was America's first man of letters(文人) to be known internationally. His works were received enthusiastically both in England and in the United States. He was, in fact, one of the most successful writers of his time in the country, and at the same time winning the admiration of fellow writers like Scot in Britain and Poe and Hawthorne in the United States. The regard in which he was held was partly owing to the man himself, with his warm friendliness, his good sense, his urbanity(温文尔雅), his high spirits, his artistic integrity, his love of both the Old World and the New World.

Thackeray described Irving as“a gentleman, who, though himself born in no very high sphere, was most finished, polished, witty; socially the equal of the most refined Europeans". In England he was granted an honorary degree from Oxford--an unusual honor for a citizen of a young, uncultured nation--and he received the medal of the Royal Society of Literature. America made him ambassador to Spain.

Irving's background provided little to explain his literary achievements. A gifted but delicate child, he had little schooling. He studied law, but without enthusiasm, and never took practice seriously.

He was immune ti his strict Presbyterian(长老会的)home environment, frequenting(常去) both social gatherings and the theater.

Passage 3

Water problems in the future will become more intense and more complex. Our increasing population will tremendously increase urban wastes, primarily sewage(污水). On the other hand, increasing demands for water will substantially decrease the amount of water available for diluting wastes. Rapidly expanding industries which involve more and more complex chemical processes will produce a larger volume of liquid wastes, and many of these will contain chemicals which are poisonous. To feed our rapidly expanding population, agriculture will have to be intensified(加强). This will involve ever-increasing quantities of agricultural chemicals. From this, it is apparent that drastic steps must be taken immediately to develop corrective measures for the pollution problem.

There are two ways by which this pollution problem can be alleviated(缓解). The first relates to the treatment of wastes to decrease their pollution hazard. This involves the processing of solid wastes“prior to”disposal and the treatment of liquid wastes, or effluents, to permit the reuse of the water or minimize pollution upon final disposal.

The second approach is to develop an economic use for all or a part of the wastes. Farm manure(粪肥)is spread in fields as a nutrient or organic supplement. Effluents from sewage disposal plants are used in some areas both for irrigation and for the nutrients contained. Effluents from other processing plants may also be used as a supplemental source of water. Many industries, such as meat and poultry processing plants, are currently converting former waste products into marketable by-products(副产品). Other industries are exploring potential, economic uses for their waste products.

Passage 4

Accidents are caused; they don't just happen. The reasons may be easy to see: a shelf out of reach, a patch of ice on the road, an overloaded truck. But more often than not there is a chain of events leading up to the misfortune--frustration, tiredness or just a bad temper--that can show what the accident really is, a sort of attack on oneself.

Road accidents, for example, happen frequently after a family quarrel, and we all know people who are accident-prone, so often at odds with themselves and the world that they seem to cause accidents for themselves and others.

By definition, an accident is something you can not predict or avoid, and the idea, which used to be current, that the majority of road accidents are caused by a minority of criminally careless drivers, is not supported by insurance statistics. These show that most accidents involve ordinary motorists in a moment of carelessness or thoughtlessness.

It is not always clear, either, what sorts of conditions make people more likely to have an accident. For instance, the law requires all factories to take safety precautions and most companies have safety committees to make sure the regulations are observed, but sill, every day in Britain, some fifty thousand men and women are injured from work due to accidents. These accidents are largely the result of human error or misjudgment--noise, fatigue, boredom and worry are possible factors which contribute to the accidents. Doctors who work in factories have found that those who drink too much, usually people who have a high anxiety level, run three times the normal risk of accidents at work.

Passage 1

It is a terrible illustration of man's weakness to nature, and the tsunami(海啸) that struck the Japanese coast in March, 2011 has illustrated the difficulty of fighting against natural disasters, even for a prosperous nation.

Totally preventing tsunami-damage is impossible.But there is much that can be done to minimize damage and loss of life. Measures that can be taken include designing solid buildings, and developing early waning systems,public education programs and evacuation (疏散) strategies. Moreover, the approach of a tsunami is possibly picked up by the sensors of complicated international warning systems. Countries can use radio and television broadcasts as well as loudspeaker networks to warn the public.

But an early warning system depends on how far the tsunami strikes, if it 's close by, the warning system is not going to be very effective. When people are faced with an unstoppable force like a tsunami--the massive waves created by events like underwater earthquakes , the best course of action for them is to get inland and to the higher ground as quickly as possible.

Passage 2

With all the wars, fights and sadness in the world today, it 's not only necessary, but also essential to have a good sense of humor just to help us get through each and every day of our lives. Putting a smile on your face when you know others are feeling depressed makes them feel good and warms their heart.

How would you feel if you could not joke around with your wife, husband, child, co-worker, neighbor, close friend, or even just someone that you are standing in line with at the store? I am always saying things that make others smile or laugh, even if I don't know the person I'm joking around with. My grandma always found humor in everything she did, even if it was the hardest job anyone could imagine. This not only relieves stress in any situation, but also is common courtesy(礼貌) to speak to others that are around you.

l know of a few people that don't have a sense of humor in their bodies, as they say. Everyone around them could be rolling on the floor after hearing a great joke and they would sit there without the slightest smile on their face. They don't get the joke that makes others laugh. I am bursting into laughter while they just sit there, looking at me as if I were from outer space. How can not people get a really funny joke?

Laughing is essential to keep your stress levels under control. Without humor we would find ourselves with a lot of psychological problems, or on medication to keep us from going crazy. There is too much sadness in this present world. It drives people crazy. We all need to find a way to bypass the sadness and bring a little light into our lives. So, I believe our best medicine is to get together and tell some jokes and have some fun laughing together.

Passage 3

Linkup, the APP Research and Development Company, has announced that it will give more than twenty-five million dollars in money and investments to help the poor. The company says the effort involves using the power of information and technology to help people improve their lives.

James Lee works for Linkup. org--the part of the company that gives money to good causes. He said the company's first project will help identify where infectious diseases are developing. In Southeast Asia and Africa, for example, Linkup. org will work with partners to strengthen early warning systems and take action against growing health threats.

Linkup. org's second project will invest in ways to help small and medium-sized businesses grow. James Lee says microfinance is generally small, short-term loans that create few jobs. Instead, he says Linkup. org wants to develop ways to bring investors and business owners together to create jobs and improve economic growth.

Linkup. org will also give money to help two climate-change programs announced earlier this year.One of these programs studies ways to make renewable(可再生的) energy less costly than coal-based energy. The other is examining the efforts being made to increase the use of electric cars.

The owners of Linkup have promised to give Linkup. org about one percent of company profits and one percent of its total stock value every year. James Lee says this amount may increase in the future.

Passage 4

Global warming is causing more than 300 , 000 deaths and about $125 billion in economic losses each year, according to a report by the Global Humanitarian Forum, an organization led by Annan, the former United Nations Secretary General.

The report analyzed data and existing studies of health, disaster, population and economic trends, It found that human-influenced climate change was raising the global death rates from illnesses including malnutrition(营养不良) and heat-related health problems.

But even before its release, the report drew criticism from some experts on climate and risk, who question edits methods and conclusions.

Along with the deaths, the report said that the lives of 325 million people, primarily in poor countries, were being seriously affected by climate change. It predicted that the number would double by 2030.

Roger Pielke Jr. , a political scientist at the University of Colorado, Boulder, who studies disaster trends, said the Forum' s report was "a methodological embarrassment" because there was no way to distinguish deaths or economic losses related to human-driven global warming amid the much larger loses resulting from the growth in populations and economic development in vulnerable(易受伤害的) regions. Dr. Pielke said that--climate change is an important problem requiring our utmost attention.But the report, he said," will harm the cause for action on both climate change and disasters because it is so deeply flawed(有瑕疵的)”.

However, Soren Andreasen, a social scientist at Dalberg Global Development Partners who supervised the writing of the report, defended it, saying that it was clear that the numbers were rough estimates.He said the report was aimed at world leaders, who will meet in Copenhagen in December to negotiate a new international climate treaty.

In a press release describing the report, Mr. Annan stressed the need for the negotiations to focus on increasing the flow of money from rich to poor regions to help reduce their vulnerability to climate hazards while still curbing the emissions of the heat-trapping gases. More than 90% of the human and economic losses from climate change are occurring in poor countries, according to the report.